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Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders as Foster Youth Transition to Adulthood
(Children and Youth Services Review, 01/01/10) Narendorf, Sarah C.; McMillen, J. Curtis
Little research has previously examined substance use and substance use disorders as youth age out of foster care. This study examined rates of getting drunk, marijuana use, and substance use disorders over time for a cohort of 325 older youth in foster care in Missouri. Rates of past month marijuana use increased from 9% at age 17 to 20% at age 19. Rates of getting drunk in past year increased from 18% at age 18 to 31% at age 19. Compared to the general population, older foster youth had lower rates of substance use but higher rates of substance use disorders (SUD), with 15% of youth meeting criteria for a SUD at age 19. Youth who had left the custody of the state had significantly higher rates of alcohol and marijuana use at ages 18 and 19. Transitions out of residential care and into independent living situations were associated with use of substances at age 18. Different risk factors were associated with substance use at ages 18 and age 19 while risk factors for SUDs were more stable over time. Findings highlight the need to screen and provide treatment for SUDs before youth leave state custody and to consider substance abuse treatment in decisions to extend care beyond age 18.
Perspectives on Psychotropic Medication Treatment Among Young Adults Formerly Served in Public Systems of Care: A Thematic and Narrative Analysis
(Journal of the Society for Social Work Research, 01/26/15) Narendorf, Sarah C.; Munson, Michelle R.; Floersch, Jerry
This study examines the perspectives of psychotropic medications held by young adults with mood disorder diagnoses. This article presents an analysis of qualitative interviews with 52 young adults who had been involved with public systems of care during adolescence and had used psychiatric medications. A concatenated analytic approach was used. First, we used a thematic analysis across cases, then a narrative analysis within selected cases. Two main themes emerged from the thematic analysis that captured aspects of the experience of taking medication. First, young adults described the effects of the medications and how they thought the medications were working. They described the impact on their moods, thinking, bodies, and functioning, and the ways in which these effects related to their lives. Second, the process of taking medications emerged as an important aspect of the medication treatment experience, including the trial-and-error nature of treatment and interactions with psychiatrists. The narrative analysis within cases identified that some youth created a medication narrative composed of three elements: why medications were needed, what medications do, and participants’ outlook on future medication use. These narratives are helpful in understanding prior patterns of service use and are instructive in framing young people’s future intentions to use medications. Findings support the importance of eliciting the perspectives of young adults about their treatment and ensuring that services are designed and delivered in developmentally appropriate ways tailored to this group.
Using an Arts-Informed Eclectic Approach to Photovoice Data Analysis
(International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 02/02/18) Capous-Desyllas, Moshoula; Bromfield, Nicole F.
Arts-informed approaches in qualitative research are gaining more recognition as being a critical research approach in the social sciences. Using arts in research is most commonly seen in the data collection process and in data representation, however, very little is written about how to use arts-informed approaches in data analysis. There are no “how-to” guides and researchers who engage in photovoice research often implement traditional qualitative methods for analyzing their data. The purpose of this article is to merge creativity with rigor to illustrate alternative means to analyze photovoice research data. This article serves as a practical and systematic guide for interpreting photographic and interview transcript data from photovoice projects. Various tables illustrate organizational strategies, and collages serve as a metaphor for the analysis process and themes. The benefits of using arts-informed analysis methods include cross-disciplinary study, innovative ways to interpret data, enhancement of trustworthiness and rigor, and building creative mediums as a form of knowledge.
Post High School Service Use for Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders
(Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 02/07/11) Shattuck, Paul T.; Wagner, Mary; Narendorf, Sarah C.
Objectives: To produce nationally representative population estimates of rates of service use among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder during their first few years after leaving high school and to examine correlates of use. Design : Nationally representative telephone survey from April 2007 to February 2008. Setting: United States. Participants: Parents and guardians of young adults with autism spectrum disorders aged 19 to 23 years. Main Exposure: Autism spectrum disorder. Main Outcome Measures: Use of the following services in the prior 2 years or since leaving high school: mental health services, medical evaluation and assessment, speech therapy, and case management. Results: Rates of service use ranged from 9.1% for speech therapy to 41.9% for case management; 39.1% of youths with an autism spectrum disorder represented by the survey received no services. The adjusted odds of no services were higher among African American participants and those with low incomes. The adjusted odds of case management were lower among youths with high functional skills and those with low incomes.
Religious coping style and cultural worldview are associated with suicide ideation among African American adults
(Archives of Suicide Research, 03/01/17) Walker, Rheeda L.; Salami, Temilola K.; Cater, Sierra E.; Flowers, Kelci C.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether specific religious coping styles and cultural worldview would be associated with thoughts of suicide given higher levels of stress in a community-based sample of African American adults. African American men and women (n = 134) completed measures of religious coping, cultural worldview, stressful life events, depression symptoms, and suicide ideation. Higher ratings of suicide ideation were observed for African Americans who endorsed a more self-directing religious coping style. The self-directing religious coping was more frequently endorsed by participants who identified with a more Eurocentric cultural worldview that espouses an individualist philosophy. Together, these findings provide some insight to how religious coping and culture are related to suicide vulnerability for African Americans who are not in clinical care.
A randomized controlled trial of a web-based, personalized normative feedback alcohol intervention for young-adult veterans
(Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 03/13/17) Pedersen, Eric R.; Parast, Layla; Marshall, Grant N.; Schell, Terry L.; Neighbors, Clayton
Objective: Young adult American veterans are at-risk for problematic alcohol use. However, they are unlikely to seek care and may drop out from lengthy multicomponent treatments when they do get care. This randomized controlled trial tested a very brief alcohol intervention delivered over the Internet to reach the population of young adult veterans to help reduce their drinking. Method: Veterans (N=784) were recruited from Facebook and randomized to either a control condition or a personalized normative feedback (PNF) intervention seeking to correct drinking perceptions of gender-specific veteran peers. Results: At immediate post-intervention, PNF participants reported greater reductions in their perceptions of peer drinking and in intentions to drink over the next month compared to control participants. At one-month follow-up, PNF participants reduced their drinking behavior and consequences to a significantly greater extent than controls. Specifically, PNF participants drank 3.4 fewer drinks per week, consumed 0.4 fewer drinks per occasion, binge drank on 1.0 fewer days, and experienced about 1.0 fewer consequences than control participants in the month after the intervention. Intervention effects for drinks per occasion were most pronounced among more problematic drinkers. Changes in perceived norms from baseline to one-month follow-up mediated intervention efficacy. Conclusions: Though effects were assessed after only one-month, findings have potential to inform broader, population-level programs designed for young veterans to prevent escalation of drinking and development of long-term alcohol problems. Given the simplicity of the PNF approach and ease of administration, this intervention has the potential for a substantial impact on public health.
Comorbidity of alcohol and gambling problems in emerging adults: A bifactor model conceptualization
(Journal of Gambling Studies, 03/22/17) Tackett, Jennifer L.; Krieger, Heather; Neighbors, Clayton; Rinker, Dipali; Rodriguez, Lindsey M.; Edward, Gottheil
Addictive disorders, such as pathological gambling and alcohol use disorders, frequently co-occur at greater than chance levels. Substantive questions stem from this comorbidity regarding the extent to which shared variance between gambling and alcohol use reflects a psychological core of addictive tendencies, and whether this differs as a function of gender. The aims of this study were to differentiate both common and unique variance in alcohol and gambling problems in a bifactor model, examine measurement invariance of this model by gender, and identify substantive correlates of the final bifactor model. Undergraduates (N = 4475) from a large northwestern university completed an online screening questionnaire which included demographics, quantity of money lost and won when gambling, the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the AUDIT, gambling motives, drinking motives, personality, and the Brief Symptom Inventory. Results suggest that the bifactor model fit the data well in the full sample. Although the data suggest configural invariance across gender, factor loadings could not be constrained to be equal between men and women. As such, general and specific factors were examined separately by gender with a more intensive subsample of females and males (n = 264). Correlations with motivational tendencies, personality traits, and mental health symptoms indicated support for the validity of the bifactor model, as well as gender-specific patterns of association. Results suggest informative distinctions between shared and unique attributes related to problematic drinking and gambling.
Consolidation rather than termination: Rethinking how psychologists label the final phase of psychological treatment
(Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 04/01/14) Maples, Jessica L.; Walker, Rheeda L.
Some clinicians and theorists have noted that termination is an ill-advised choice for labeling and potentially conceptualizing the final, but critical phase of psychotherapy. The adoption of termination is believed to have been due, at least in part, to a 1930s mistranslation of Freud's original writings (e.g., Schlesinger, 2005). The purpose of this article is to discuss potential implications and contemporary limitations associated with the label, termination, and explicitly conceptualize an active, strengths-based approach to ending psychotherapy. Current areas of concern include the negatively valenced label and the seemingly absent tenor of positive collaboration despite previous efforts to formalize more productive psychotherapy endings. Consolidation is presented as preferred, novel terminology given its coherence with the aims of ending psychotherapy, utilizing a strengths-based approach, and also with current therapeutic paradigms. The process of ending psychotherapy typically involves solidifying improvements made over the course of psychotherapy and reorienting clients to life outside of formal psychotherapy—a consolidation conceptualization. We posit that the nature of this ending begins with careful language that appropriately captures this phase of treatment and that drives how psychotherapists collaborate with clients and patients to maximize clinical outcomes.
Socioeconomic status and symptoms of depression and anxiety in African American college students: The mediating role of hopelessness
(Journal of Black Psychology, 04/25/13) Salami, Temilola K.; Walker, Rheeda L.
Factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and hopelessness, a dimension of cognitive vulnerability, have been associated with the onset of depression and anxiety pathology in primarily European American study samples. The purpose of this brief article was to examine a main effect of SES and mediating effect of hopelessness in relation to acute symptoms of depression and anxiety in African American college students. Vulnerability-stress theories suggest that cognitively vulnerable individuals are more likely to develop depressive symptoms than individuals without cognitive vulnerabilities. Participants were 133 African American college students who completed self-report measures of hopelessness and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results revealed that the relationship between participants’ SES and participants’ symptoms of depression was partially mediated by self-reported hopelessness. The relationship between participants’ SES and anxiety symptoms was fully mediated by their level of hopelessness. However, the direction of the findings was unexpected in that higher SES was associated with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety and also increased hopelessness. Future research and considerations for intervention are briefly discussed.
A Longitudinal Study of Racial Discrimination and Risk for Death Ideation in African American Youth
(Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 05/03/16) Walker, Rheeda L.; Francis, David J.; Brody, Gene H.; Simons, Ronald L.; Cutrona, Carolyn; Gibbons, Frederick X.
Although multiple studies have found that African Americans commonly experience racial discrimination, available studies have yet to examine how perceived racism might be related to suicide vulnerability in African American youth. The purpose of this study was to examine a framework for how perceived racial discrimination contributes to symptoms of depression and anxiety as well as subsequent suicide ideation and morbid ideation. Data were obtained from 722 African American youth at mean age 10.56 years (SD = 0.64); a second wave of data was obtained 2 years later. Results revealed both a direct effect and mediated effects of perceived racism on later suicide and morbid ideation. For boys and girls, the effect of perceived racism was mediated by symptoms of depression. However, the association was mediated by anxiety for girls, but not for boys in the current sample. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.
Adherence to Behavioural Interventions in Multiple Sclerosis: Follow-Up Meeting Report (AD@MS-2)
(Multiple Sclerosis Journal: Experimental, Translational and Clinical, 05/12/15) Heesen, Christoph; Bruce, Jared; Gearing, Robin Edward; Moss-Morris, Rona; Weinmann, John; Hamalainen, Paivi; Motl, Robert; Dalgas, Ulrik; Kos, Daphne; Visioli, Francesco; Feys, Peter; Solari, Alessandra; Finlayson, Marcia; Eliasson, Lina; Matthews, Vicki; Bogossian, Angeliki; Liethmann, Katrin; Köpke, Sascha; Bissell, Paul
After an initial meeting in 2013 that reviewed adherence to disease modifying therapy, the AD@MS group conducted a follow-up meeting in 2014 that examined adherence to behavioural interventions in MS (e.g. physical activity, diet, psychosocial interventions). Very few studies have studied adherence to behavioural interventions in MS. Outcomes beyond six months are lacking, as well as implementation work in the community. Psychological interventions need to overcome stigma and other barriers to facilitate initiation and maintenance of behaviour change. A focus group concentrated on physical activity and exercise as one major behavioural intervention domain in MS. The discussion revealed that patients are confronted with multiple challenges when attempting to regularly engage in physical activity. Highlighted needs for future research included an improved understanding of patients’ and health experts’ knowledge and attitudes towards physical activity as well as a need for longitudinal research that investigates exercise persistence.
Development and Piloting of a Treatment Foster Care Program for Older Youth with Psychiatric Problems
(Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 06/26/15) McMillen, J. Curtis; Narendorf, Sarah C.; Robinson, Debra R.; Havlicek, Judy; Fedoravicius, Nicole; Bertram, Julie E.; McNelly, David
Background: Older youth in out-of-home care often live in restrictive settings and face psychiatric issues without sufficient family support. This paper reports on the development and piloting of a manualized treatment foster care program designed to step down older youth with high psychiatric needs from residential programs to treatment foster care homes. Methods: A team of researchers and agency partners set out to develop a treatment foster care model for older youth based on Multi-dimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC). After matching youth by mental health condition and determining for whom randomization would be allowed, 14 youth were randomized to treatment as usual or a treatment foster home intervention. Stakeholders were interviewed qualitatively at multiple time points. Quantitative measures assessed mental health symptoms, days in locked facilities, employment and educational outcomes. Results: Development efforts led to substantial variations from the MTFC model and a new model, Treatment Foster Care for Older Youth was piloted. Feasibility monitoring suggested that it was difficult, but possible to recruit and randomize youth from and out of residential homes and that foster parents could be recruited to serve them. Qualitative data pointed to some qualified clinical successes. Stakeholders viewed two team roles – that of psychiatric nurse and skills coaches – very highly. However, results also suggested that foster parents and some staff did not tolerate the intervention well and struggled to address the emotion dysregulation issues of the young people they served. Quantitative data demonstrated that the intervention was not keeping youth out of locked facilities. Conclusions: The intervention needed further refinement prior to a broader trial. Intervention development work continued until components were developed to help address emotion regulation problems among fostered youth. Psychiatric nurses and skills coaches who work with youth in community settings hold promise as important supports for older youth with psychiatric needs.
Postsecondary Employment Experiences among Young Adults with an Autism Spectrum Disorder
(Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 07/31/13) Roux, Anne M.; Shattuck, Paul T.; Cooper, Benjamin P.; Anderson, Kristy A.; Wagner, Mary; Narendorf, Sarah C.
Objective: We examined postsecondary employment experiences of young adults with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and compared these outcomes with those of young adults with different disabilities. Method: Data were from Wave 5 of the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2), a nationally representative survey of young adults who had received special education services during high school. We examined the prevalence of ever having had—and currently having—a paid job at 21–25 years of age. We analyzed rates of full employment, wages earned, number of jobs held since high school, and job types. Results: About half (53.4%) of young adults with an ASD had ever worked for pay outside the home since leaving high school, the lowest rate among disability groups. Young adults with an ASD earned an average of $8.10 per hour, significantly lower than average wages for young adults in the comparison groups, and held jobs that clustered within fewer occupational types. Odds of ever having had a paid job were higher for those who were older, from higher-income households, and with better conversational abilities or functional skills. Conclusions: Findings of worse employment outcomes for young adults with an ASD suggest this population is experiencing particular difficulty in successfully transitioning into employment. Research is needed to determine strategies for improving outcomes as these young adults transition into adulthood.
Social Support and Religion: Mental Health Service Use and Treatment of Schizophrenia
(Community Mental Health Journal, 08/01/13) Smolak, Alex; Gearing, Robin Edward; Alonzo, Dana; Baldwin, Susanna; Harmon, Sherelle; McHugh, Katie
The perceptions and religious beliefs held by family members, mental health and health care professionals, and the community may affect the treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. To better identify and understand the influence of families, professionals and community members on individual’s treatment for schizophrenia, this review paper examines: (1) the religious perceptions of families, professionals, and the public towards schizophrenia; (2) religious perceptions of the etiology of schizophrenia; (3) how others perceive religion as a coping mechanism; and (4) how religion influences treatment engagement and help-seeking behaviors. MEDLINE and PsycInfo databases were systematically searched from 1980 to 2010 using the terms schizophrenia, schizoaffective, schizophreniform, psychotic disorder not otherwise specified and religion, religiosity, spirituality, and faith. Forty-three (n = 43) original research studies met the inclusion criteria. This study found that religious beliefs influence the treatment of schizophrenia in the following ways: Religious themes were positively associated with coping, treatment engagement and help-seeking behavior. Evidence of religious underpinnings was found in perceptions of etiology. The findings also indicate that there is often both a preference among family members and caregivers to utilize religious-based professionals and caution toward mental health professionals. Researchers and professionals may find avenues for improving treatment through examining the interaction of religious and schizophrenia at the social support level.
Implicit alcohol associations, especially drinking identity, predict drinking over time
(Health Psychology, 08/01/16) Lindgren, Kristen P.; Neighbors, Clayton; Teachman, Bethany A.; Baldwin, Scott A.; Norris, Jeanette; Kaysen, Debra; Gasser, Melissa L.; Wiers, Reinout W.
There is considerable excitement about implicit alcohol associations (IAAs) as predictors of college-student hazardous drinking; however, few studies have investigated IAAs prospectively, included multiple assessments, or controlled for previous drinking. Doing so is essential for showing the utility of these associations as predictors, and ultimately, targets for screening or intervention. Therefore, 3 IAAs (i.e., drinking identity, alcohol approach, and alcohol excitement) were evaluated as prospective predictors of drinking in 1st- and 2nd-year undergraduates in the United States.A sample of 506 undergraduates completed 8 online assessments of IAAs, explicit measures of the IAA constructs, and hazardous drinking (i.e., consumption, problems, and risk of alcohol-use disorders) every 3 months over a 21-month period. Retention rates, ordered by follow-up time points, were 90%, 76%, 76%, 77%, 72%, 67%, and 66%, respectively. Half of the participants were nondrinkers at baseline; 21% were above clinical cutoffs for hazardous drinking.Drinking-identity and alcohol-excitement associations predicted future alcohol consumption and problems after controlling for previous drinking and explicit measures; drinking identity also predicted future risk of alcohol-use disorder. Relative to the other IAAs, drinking identity predicted alcohol consumption for the longest duration (i.e., 21 months). Alcohol-approach associations rarely predicted variance in drinking.IAAs vary in their utility as prospective predictors of college-student hazardous drinking. Drinking identity and, to a lesser extent, alcohol excitement, emerged as robust prospective predictors of hazardous drinking. Intervention and screening efforts could likely benefit from targeting those associations.
Underlying Motives, Moral Agendas and Unlikely Partnerships: The Formulation of the U.S. Trafficking in Victims Protection Act through the Data and Voices of Key Policy Players
(Advances in Social Work, 08/07/12) Bromfield, Nicole F.; Capous-Desyllas, Moshoula
In response to the overwhelming amount of attention to human trafficking, the debates surrounding its definition, and its focus on the sex industry, the purpose of this study was to understand the motivations behind the formation of the Trafficking in Victims Protection Act (TVPA). Using the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) as a model, data was collected and analyzed in order to examine the coalition identities of key players and their positions. Through the presentation of in-depth interview data with key policy players involved in the making of the TVPA, this article illustrates how and why the TVPA was formulated, the implications of its development, and the necessity for critical analysis of its effects. The use of alternative frameworks of labor and migration for understanding trafficking is proposed. Further consideration is given to legislative changes to eliminate anti-prostitution ideology and to support anti-oppressive approaches to addressing forced or deceptive working conditions.
Prevalence and Correlates of Bullying Involvement among Adolescents with an Autism Spectrum Disorder
(Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 09/03/12) Sterzing, Paul R.; Shattuck, Paul T.; Narendorf, Sarah C.; Wagner, Mary; Cooper, Benjamin P.
Objectives: Produce nationally representative estimates for rates of bullying involvement among adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder, compare population estimates to adolescents with other developmental disabilities, and identify social ecological correlates of bullying involvement. Design: Nationally representative surveys from 2001. Setting: United States. Participants: Parents of adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder, principals of the schools they attended, and staff members most familiar with their school programs. Main Exposure: Autism spectrum disorders Outcomes Measures: Bullying involvement (parent report of victimization, perpetration, and victimization/perpetration within the last school year). Results: The prevalence rates of bullying involvement for adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder were 46.3% (victimization), 14.8% (perpetration), and 8.9% (victimization/perpetration). Victimization was related to having a non-Hispanic ethnic identity, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, lower social skills, some form of conversational ability, and more classes in general education. Correlates of perpetration included being White, having attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and getting together with friends at least once a week. Victimization/perpetration was associated with being White, non-Hispanic ethnicity, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and getting together with friends at least once a week. Conclusions: School-based bullying interventions need to target the core deficits of autism (conversational ability, social skills) and comorbid conditions (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder). Future bullying interventions also need to address the higher rates of victimization that occur in general education settings by increasing social integration into protective peer groups and increasing the empathy and social skills of typically developing students toward their peers with an autism spectrum disorder.
Cervico-Ocular Reflex in Normal Subjects and Patients with Unilateral Vestibular Hypofunction
(Otology & Neurotology, 1/1/2004) Schubert, Michael C.; Das, Vallabh E.; Tusa, Ronald J.; Herdman, Susan J.
Objective: To determine whether the cervico-ocular reflex contributes to gaze stability in patients with unilateral vestibular hypofunction. Study Design: Prospective study. Setting: Tertiary referral center. Patients: Patients with unilateral vestibular hypofunction (n = 3) before and after vestibular rehabilitation and healthy subjects (n = 7). Interventions: Vestibular rehabilitation. Main Outcome Measures: We measured the cervico-ocular reflex in patients with unilateral vestibular hypofunction before and after vestibular rehabilitation and in healthy subjects. To measure the cervico-ocular reflex, we recorded eye movements with a scleral search coil while the trunk moved at 0.3, 1.0, and 1.5 Hz beneath a stabilized head. To determine whether the head was truly stabilized, we measured head movement using a search coil. Results: We found no evidence of cervico-ocular reflex in any of the seven healthy subjects or in two of the patients with unilateral vestibular hypofunction. In one patient with chronic unilateral vestibular hypofunction, the cervico-ocular reflex was present before vestibular rehabilitation only for leftward trunk rotation (relative head rotation toward the intact side). After 5 weeks of placebo exercises, there was no change in the cervico-ocular reflex. After an additional 5 weeks that included vestibular exercises, cervico-ocular reflex gain for leftward trunk rotation had increased threefold. In addition, there was now evidence of a cervico-ocular reflex for rightward trunk rotation, potentially compensating for the vestibular deficit. Conclusion: The cervico-ocular reflex appears to be a highly inconsistent mechanism. The change of the cervico-ocular reflex in one patient after vestibular exercises suggests that the cervico-ocular reflex may be adaptable in some patients.
Nucleotide modification at the ?-phosphate leads to the improved fidelity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
(Nucleic Acids Research, 1/1/2005) Mulder, Brent A.; Anaya, Steve; Yu, Peilin; Lee, Keun Woo; Nguyen, Anvy; Murphy, Jason C.; Willson, Richard C.; Briggs, James M.; Gao, Xiaolian; Hardin, Susan H.
The mechanism by which HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (HIV-RT) discriminates between the correct and incorrect nucleotide is not clearly understood. Chemically modified nucleotides containing 1-aminonaphthalene-5-sulfonate (ANS) attached to their ?-phosphate were synthesized and used to probe nucleotide selection by this error prone polymerase. Primer extension reactions provide direct evidence that the polymerase is able to incorporate the gamma-modified nucleotides. Forward mutation assays reveal a 6-fold reduction in the mutational frequency with the modified nucleotides, and specific base substitutions are dramatically reduced or eliminated. Molecular modeling illustrates potential interactions between critical residues within the polymerase active site and the modified nucleotides. Our data demonstrate that the fidelity of reverse transcriptase is improved using modified nucleotides, and we suggest that specific modifications to the ?-phosphate may be useful in designing new antiviral therapeutics or, more generally, as a tool for defining the structural role that the polymerase active site has on nucleotide selectivity.
Crystals in the Public Domain
(Boston College Law Review, 1/1/2009) Fagundes, Dave
The law increasingly treats copyright as if it were any other form of property, and numerous writers decry this trend. In particular, scholars who express solicitude for the public domain fear that the propertization of copyright means an inevitable accretion of private rights in information at the expense of the public domain. This Article critiques this conventional view, arguing that the propertization of copyright has unappreciated advantages for users of public information goods. The conventional view relies on an overly narrow view of what propertization means. The treatment of copyright as a form of property generally entails not only reduction of entitlements to private ownership, but also the bounding of those entitlements with clearly demarcated, or crystalline, borders. Although many writers prefer muddy entitlements that create fluidity regarding the extent of the public domain, this Article argues instead that it is this very fluidity that is at fault for excessive accretion of private rights in information. Uncertainty about the extent of public entitlements in information allows well-capitalized private actors lay claim to resources whose public/private status is at all ambiguous, and then deter the public's claims through threats of litigation. By contrast, a public domain characterized by crystalline rule structures would benefit users, not only owners, by allowing them to better comprehend the extent of their entitlements and thus exploit common resources without fear of suit. By way of illustration, this Article provides three examples of how copyright law could be reformed to create user-friendly crystalline entitlement structures. It then concludes by situating the propertization of copyright law, and this critique of the dominant narrative about that trend, in the context of current debates in property law more generally.

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